Concepts, Objectives & Characteristics of Teaching

Teaching is a complex social, interpersonal, and purposive educational process that aims to bring about desirable and enduring changes in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor behaviour of learners (Smith, 1961). As an ancient yet evolving professional activity, teaching represents the systematic mediation between structured bodies of knowledge and the developmental needs of human beings.

1. Concept and Definitions of Teaching

The term "teaching" has been conceptualised from multiple theoretical perspectives. Educational philosophers and psychologists have offered definitions that emphasise different dimensions of the act:

"Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behaviour potential of another person." — Gage (1963, p. 120)

"Teaching is a disciplined contact between a more mature personality and a less mature one, which is designed to further the education of the latter." — Morrison (1934)

"Teaching is that which causes learning; it is the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning." — Brubacher (1969)

These definitions collectively point to three core elements: (a) a teacher who possesses knowledge and pedagogical skill; (b) a learner who is capable of growth; and (c) a subject matter or content that serves as the medium of interaction (Dewey, 1916).

2. Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

Teaching possesses several distinctive characteristics that differentiate it from mere information delivery or entertainment (Nagarajan & Chinnasami, 2018):

1. Goal-Directed: Teaching always has clearly defined aims and objectives. It is intentional and purposive rather than accidental.
2. Interpersonal Activity: Teaching involves a minimum of two persons — a teacher and a learner — and is therefore inherently social in nature.
3. Stimulation of Learning: Effective teaching stimulates the learner's curiosity, motivates inquiry, and facilitates active intellectual engagement.
4. Communication-Based: Teaching is fundamentally an act of communication — of ideas, values, skills, and dispositions — using verbal and non-verbal channels.
5. Ethical Activity: Teaching involves moral dimensions: care for the student's welfare, honesty, fairness in evaluation, and respect for diversity.
6. Continuous and Dynamic: Teaching is not a one-time event. It is an ongoing, cyclical process that adapts to learner feedback and changing contexts.
7. Both Art and Science: Teaching combines the science of pedagogical methodology (evidence-based instructional strategies) with the art of creative, empathetic human engagement.
8. Diagnostic and Remedial: Good teaching involves diagnosing learner difficulties and providing remedial instruction where necessary.

3. Objectives of Teaching

The objectives of teaching are categorised into the three major domains identified by Bloom (1956) and his colleagues. These provide a taxonomic framework that guides curriculum design, instructional planning, and assessment:

3.1 Cognitive Domain (Bloom, 1956)

This domain pertains to intellectual skills and knowledge. Bloom's original taxonomy identified six hierarchical levels:

1. Knowledge — Recall of facts, terminology, and information.
2. Comprehension — Understanding the meaning of material.
3. Application — Using learned material in new situations.
4. Analysis — Breaking material into parts and detecting relationships.
5. Synthesis — Combining elements to form a new whole.
6. Evaluation — Making judgements about the value of material.

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised this taxonomy, replacing nouns with action verbs and reordering the top levels: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, and Create (the highest level).

3.2 Affective Domain (Krathwohl et al., 1964)

This domain deals with feelings, emotions, values, and attitudes. The five levels in ascending order are:

1. Receiving — Awareness and willingness to attend.
2. Responding — Active participation by the learner.
3. Valuing — Attaching worth or belief to an idea.
4. Organisation — Integrating values into a priority system.
5. Characterisation — Values become consistent with one's worldview.

3.3 Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972)

This domain covers physical, motor, and manipulative skills. It is particularly relevant in vocational, technical, and physical education contexts. Simpson's (1972) levels include: Perception, Set, Guided Response, Mechanism, Complex Overt Response, Adaptation, and Origination.

4. Basic Requirements of Teaching

For teaching to be effective, certain foundational conditions must be met. Educational theorists identify these as the essential prerequisites of the teaching-learning process (Mangal, 2012):

4.1 The Teaching Triad

Following Dewey (1916), teaching is best understood as a triadic relationship:

1. The Teacher (Independent Variable): The teacher plans, initiates, organises, and guides instruction. The teacher's subject mastery, pedagogical skill, attitude, and personality significantly shape learning outcomes.
2. The Learner (Dependent Variable): The learner actively receives, processes, and internalises new information. Learner readiness, motivation, and prior knowledge are critical determinants.
3. The Curriculum / Subject Matter (Intervening Variable): The content, materials, and learning environment mediate between teacher and learner. A well-structured curriculum aligns instructional objectives with learner needs.

4.2 Other Essential Requirements

• Clear Objectives: Teaching without clear aims becomes aimless activity. Objectives should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound (SMART).
• Subject Mastery: A teacher must possess deep, current, and accurate knowledge of the subject being taught (content knowledge, as described by Shulman, 1986).
• Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK): Shulman (1986) introduced this concept — the ability to translate disciplinary knowledge into forms that are accessible and meaningful to learners.
• Appropriate Methods: Teaching methods must be selected based on the nature of content, the level of learners, and the available resources. No single method is universally ideal.
• Enabling Environment: A safe, inclusive, and stimulating learning environment — encompassing physical, emotional, and intellectual dimensions — is foundational to effective teaching.
• Evaluation and Feedback: Continuous formative assessment and timely, constructive feedback are essential for guiding learning and improving instruction.

5. Maxims (Principles) of Teaching

The classical maxims of teaching represent time-tested pedagogical wisdom that guides instructional sequencing and methodology (Ross, 1960):

6. Phases of Teaching

Jackson (1968) famously distinguished three temporal phases of teaching in his seminal work Life in Classrooms:

1. Pre-Active Phase (Planning): Activities undertaken before the classroom encounter — setting objectives, selecting content, preparing materials, and deciding on methods.
2. Interactive Phase (Instruction): The actual classroom transaction — delivering instruction, managing classroom dynamics, asking questions, providing explanations, and engaging learners in activities.
3. Post-Active Phase (Evaluation): Reflective activities after instruction — assessing student learning, evaluating the effectiveness of the teaching strategy, and planning for remediation or enrichment.